.NET is a robust open-source framework for building a wide range of software applications. From user-friendly websites to complex enterprise software managing millions of transactions.
Its robust libraries and cross-platform compatibility make .NET a go-to choice for many developers.
Mastering .NET is just one step. However, handling the interview process can be even more challenging for both hiring managers and developers. This guide equips all parties with the knowledge and strategies to excel in the .NET interview setting. Within, you’ll find:
.NET interview requires thorough preparation. Before moving on to specific interview questions, let’s explore some tips to ensure a successful experience for both parties.
With these tips in mind, you’ll be well-equipped to navigate everything confidently. Now, let’s review a curated selection of .NET interview questions and answers tailored to various experience levels.
Junior .NET developer interviews begin with assessing foundational knowledge and skills. The initial screening evaluates basic .NET concepts and programming fundamentals. Technical rounds cover problem-solving tasks to determine a candidate’s growth potential.
Encapsulation involves bundling data (properties) and methods into a single unit called a class. Encapsulation helps hide the internal implementation details of an object and provides a well-defined interface for interacting with the object.
Abstraction focuses on the essential features of an object, hiding the unnecessary details. It allows you to create abstract classes and interfaces that define a contract without specifying the implementation details.
Inheritance allows a derived class to inherit properties and methods from a base class. It promotes code reuse and helps create hierarchical relationships between classes.
Polymorphism enables objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common superclass. It allows you to write more generic and flexible code that can work with objects of different types.
Inheritance is the ability of a derived class to inherit properties and methods from a base class. Encapsulation is the idea of bundling data and methods into a single unit (class) and hiding the internal implementation details.
Abstraction focuses on the essential features of an object, hiding the non-essential details. Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to be treated as objects of a common superclass.
In .NET, all classes implicitly inherit from the Object class, which is the base class for all .NET classes. Multiple inheritance is not allowed in C# but can be achieved through interfaces.
Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself to solve a problem. It involves breaking down a problem into smaller, similar subproblems until a base case is reached. Recursive functions are often used to solve problems that can be defined in terms of smaller instances of the same problem, such as traversing tree-like data structures, calculating factorials, or generating Fibonacci sequences.
A lambda expression is an anonymous function that can be used as a method argument or to initialize a variable. This function concisely represents a method, allowing you to write more readable and expressive code. Lambda expressions are commonly used in LINQ queries and various event handlers.
Parallel programming, or multithreading, is the ability of a system to support multiple threads of execution simultaneously. It improves performance by utilizing multiple processors or cores, allowing the application to perform multiple tasks concurrently. In .NET, classes like Task, Thread, and the Task Parallel Library (TPL) are commonly used for parallel programming.
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a text-based data interchange format that machines can parse and generate easily. JSON is often used as an alternative to XML to transmit data between a server and web application.
REST (Representational State Transfer) is an architectural style for building web services that use HTTP methods (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to perform CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete) operations on resources. REST APIs offer a structured way to access and manage web services. Clients can interact with these services using standard rules and protocols.
Single Page Applications (SPAs) concept is a web application model that initially loads a single HTML page. As users interact with the app, content updates dynamically without reloading the entire page.
Some commonly used GoF (Gang of Four) design patterns include:
GET requests retrieve data from the server, and the requested data is included in the URL.
POST requests send data to the server, and the data is included in the request body.
Docker solves the “works on my machine” problem by packaging an application with its dependencies into a standardized unit called a container. This container ensures that the application will run consistently across different environments. Some of the key benefits of Docker include:
The main downsides of Docker include increased complexity, potential security concerns, and the risk of vendor lock-in.
The fundamental difference between unit tests and integration tests is the scope and focus of the tests:
Unit tests focus on testing individual system components in isolation, verifying that each unit works as expected. They target the smallest testable parts of an application, such as individual methods or classes, and aim to ensure the correctness of the implementation.
Integration tests verify that different components of a system work together correctly. They test the interactions between multiple units or modules, ensuring the overall system functions as expected. Integration tests are typically performed after unit tests. They help identify issues that may arise from integrating different application parts.
The main difference is that unit tests target individual code units, while integration tests focus on the interactions and data flow between those units. Unit tests are typically easier to write, maintain, and run, while integration tests provide a more comprehensive understanding of the system’s behavior.
An Exception is an event that occurs during the execution of a program that disrupts the normal flow of the program’s instructions. Exceptions handle unexpected situations in a program, such as division by zero or invalid user input.
The try block encloses code that might throw an exception.
The catch block handles the exception and provides appropriate error-handling logic.
The final block executes code that should run regardless of whether an exception is thrown or not.
The finally block might not execute if the process is terminated, such as when Environment.FailFast() is called, or the process is abruptly shut down.
The call stack is a stack data structure that stores information about the active subroutines of a computer program. It keeps track of the functions or methods that have been called and the order in which they were called. Key keywords related to the call stack include try, catch, throw, and finally.
ASP.NET is a web application framework developed by Microsoft for building dynamic websites, web applications, and web services. It provides a programming model and a set of tools and libraries for developing web applications using .NET.
The main types of Action filters in ASP.NET MVC are:
Authorization Filters: These are used to control access to actions based on authorization rules.
Action Filters: Used to perform pre-processing or post-processing logic for actions.
Result Filters: Used to modify the result of an action.
Exception Filters: Used to handle exceptions that occur during the execution of an action.
A Web Service is a software system designed to support interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. Standard protocols like SOAP, REST are typically used.
CLR (Common Language Runtime) is the execution engine of the .NET Framework. CLR provides a runtime environment for executing .NET applications, handling memory management, code execution, and other low-level details.
Garbage Collector is a mechanism in .NET that automatically reclaims memory occupied by objects no longer used by the application. This mechanism scans the memory (managed heap) to find unused objects and reclaim their space for future use.
A delegate is a type that represents a method with a particular signature. Delegates are used to pass methods as arguments to other methods or store methods in variables, enabling function pointers in C#.
Delegate is a general-purpose type representing any method with a matching signature.
Action is a specific type of delegate that represents a method with a void return type and no parameters.
LINQ (Language Integrated Query) is a set of extensions to the .NET Framework that provide a generic way to query and transform data from various data sources. Examples of LINQ usage include querying collections, accessing databases using LINQ to Entities, and transforming XML data.
A namespace is a way to organize and scope classes, interfaces, and other types in .NET. Namespaces help prevent naming collisions and make the code more maintainable by grouping related types together.
The main data types in C# can be divided into value and reference types.
The primitive data types in C# include:
Signed integer types: sbyte, short, int, long
Unsigned integer types: byte, ushort, uint, ulong
Floating-point types: float, double
Decimal type: decimal
Boolean type: bool
Character type: char
A Nullable type is a value type that can also have a null value. It’s denoted with the ? suffix, e.g., int?. Nullable types are useful when you need to represent the absence of a value. Such as when working with databases where a column may have a null value.
Value types store their data directly in memory, while reference types store a reference (pointer) to the data. Classes are reference types, while structs are value types.
Value types are stored on the stack, while reference types are stored on the managed heap.
Value types are copied by value, creating a copy of the actual data.
Reference types are copied by reference, creating a copy of the reference (pointer).
String is a reference type in C#, not a value type.
StringBuilder is a mutable string type, meaning its contents can be modified after creation.
String is an immutable type, meaning its contents cannot be changed once created. StringBuilder is more efficient for concatenating strings, as it avoids the overhead of creating new string objects.
Generics allow you to write code that works with different data types without knowing the specific type at compile-time. They help with type safety, code reuse, and remove the need for explicit casting.
Boxing is the process of converting a value type to a reference type instance.
Unboxing is the opposite, converting a reference type back to a value type.
Boxing and unboxing can incur a performance penalty as they involve additional memory allocations and type conversions.
Array: A fixed-size collection of elements of the same type. Time complexity: Access O(1), Insertion/Deletion O(n).
Example: int[] numbers = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
List<T>: A dynamic array that can grow and shrink in size. Time complexity: Access O(1), Insertion/Deletion at the end O(1), Insertion/Deletion in the middle O(n).
Example: List<int> numbers = new List<int> { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
HashSet<T>: An unordered collection of unique elements. Time complexity: Add/Remove/Contains O(1) on average.Example: HashSet<string> names = new HashSet<string> { “Alice”, “Bob”, “Charlie” };
Dictionary<TKey, TValue>: A collection of key-value pairs. Time complexity: Add/Remove/Get O(1) on average. Example: Dictionary<int, string> idToName = new Dictionary<int, string> { { 1, “Alice” }, { 2, “Bob” }, { 3, “Charlie” } };
Queue<T> and Stack<T>: First-in-first-out (FIFO) and last-in-first-out (LIFO) collections, respectively.
SortedSet<T> and SortedDictionary<TKey, TValue>: Sorted versions of HashSet and Dictionary.
ObservableCollection<T>: A collection that provides notification when items are added, removed or the whole collection is refreshed.
The yield keyword returns an enumerable sequence of values from a method or iterator block, one at a time, instead of constructing the entire array or collection in memory. It allows you to work with data sequences too large to fit in memory all at once. When you iterate over a method that uses yield, the method generates the values on-the-fly, rather than creating a complete collection upfront.
A class is a blueprint or template for creating objects. It encapsulates data (fields) and functionality (methods) into a single unit, providing a way to model real-world entities or concepts in software.
The key differences between a class and an abstract class are:
An abstract class cannot be instantiated directly, while a regular class can. It can have both abstract and non-abstract (implemented) methods, while a regular class can only have non-abstract methods.
A class can inherit from only one abstract class but implement multiple interfaces.
The main differences between an abstract class and an interface are:
Abstract classes can have both abstract and non-abstract members.
Interfaces can only have abstract members (except for static and extension methods in C# 8.0 and later).
Abstract classes can have access modifiers and can provide method implementations.
Interfaces can only have public abstract members.
A class can inherit from only one abstract class but implement multiple interfaces.
Interfaces are used to achieve abstraction and define a contract.
The access modifiers in C# are:
public: The type or member is accessible from anywhere.
private: The type or member is accessible only within the containing class.
protected: The type or member is accessible within the containing class or any derived classes.
internal: The type or member is accessible within the same assembly.
protected internal: The type or member is accessible within the same assembly or any derived classes.
A regular class can be instantiated and has both static and instance members. A static class cannot be instantiated and contains only static members. Static classes are useful for providing utility methods or constants that don’t require any instance state.
When overriding a method, the new keyword hides the base class implementation. In contrast, override replaces the base class implementation with the derived class implementation.
const is a compile-time constant.
readonly can be set at runtime but cannot be changed after initialization.
const values are inlined by the compiler.
readonly fields are stored as instance fields.
Structs are value types, while classes are reference types. Structs are lightweight, suitable for small, simple data structures, and are stored on the stack. Examples of structs include Point, Rectangle, and DateTime.
Structs are value types and cannot be directly stored in the heap. To store a struct in the heap, you would need to wrap it in a class or use boxing.
Asynchronicity allows a program to perform other tasks while waiting for a long-running operation to complete without blocking the main thread. It is different from multithreading, which involves running multiple threads concurrently. With asynchronicity, the application can continue executing other code while the asynchronous operation is in progress, improving overall responsiveness and efficiency. On the other hand, multithreading involves parallel execution of multiple threads, which can be useful for CPU-bound tasks but requires more complex synchronization and resource management.
The keywords used for asynchronicity in C# are async and await.
The async keyword marks a method as asynchronous, allowing it to use the await keyword to pause the execution of the method until the awaited asynchronous operation completes. It enables the method to return control to the caller while the asynchronous operation is in progress, improving the application’s overall responsiveness.
Relational databases (SQL) store data in tables with defined schemas, using a structured query language (SQL) for data manipulation and retrieval. They excel at handling structured data and complex queries. Relational databases are generally stronger regarding data integrity, consistency, and complex querying.
Non-relational (NoSQL) databases use flexible, schema-less data models, such as key-value, document-oriented, or graph-based. They are better suited for handling unstructured data and high scalability requirements. Non-relational databases offer higher availability, partition tolerance, and scalability.
Indexes in RDBMS are additional data structures that improve the speed of data retrieval operations, such as SELECT queries. Indexes create a sorted list of values from a table column and pointers to the corresponding rows.
The main types of SQL JOINs are:
INNER JOIN: Returns rows that have matching values in both tables.
LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the left table and the matching rows from the right table.
RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from the right table and the matching rows from the left table.
FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN): Returns all rows from both tables, whether or not there is a match.
The fundamental difference between unit tests and integration tests is the scope and focus of the tests:
Unit tests focus on testing individual units or components of a system in isolation, verifying that each unit works as expected. They target the smallest testable parts of an application, such as individual methods or classes, and aim to ensure the correctness of the implementation.
Integration tests, on the other hand, verify that different components of a system work together correctly. They test the interactions between multiple units or modules, ensuring the overall system functions as expected. Integration tests are typically performed after unit tests, and they help identify issues that may arise from integrating different parts of the application.
The main difference is that unit tests target individual units of code, while integration tests focus on the interactions and data flow between those units. Unit tests are typically easier to write, maintain, and run, while integration tests provide a more comprehensive understanding of the system’s behavior.
Unit tests are used to verify the correctness of individual units of code (methods, classes, or components) in isolation. By testing units in isolation, you ensure each building block functions correctly, leading to a reliable application.
Advantages of unit tests include catching bugs early, improving code quality, and providing a safety net for future changes. Disadvantages include additional development effort and the potential for tests to become outdated over time.
A unit test consists of three logical blocks:
Arrange: Set up the necessary test data and preconditions.
Act: Execute the code being tested.
Assert: Verify that the observed outcome matches the expected outcome.
Mid-level .NET interviews gauge candidates’ deeper technical proficiency. Initial rounds screen intermediate .NET concepts and design patterns. Technical stages involve complex coding and architecture discussions. Candidates may also face system design and database modeling questions.
When you type “google.com” in a browser, the following happens at the HTTP level:
The browser first resolves the domain name “google.com” to an IP address using the Domain Name System (DNS). The browser sends a DNS query to a DNS server, which looks up the IP address associated with the domain.
Once the IP address is obtained, the browser initiates a TCP connection with the web server at that IP address, using the HTTP protocol on port 80 (the default HTTP port).
The browser then sends an HTTP GET request to the web server, requesting the root resource (usually the home page). The request includes headers with information about the client, such as the browser type, accepted file types, and other metadata.
The web server receives the request, processes it, and generates a response. The response includes an HTTP status code (e.g., 200 for successful, 404 for not found), response headers with metadata about the response, and the web page’s actual content (usually in HTML format).
The browser receives the response, parses the HTML, and renders the web page. As the page loads, the browser may send additional requests for resources referenced in the HTML, such as images, stylesheets, and JavaScript files.
The browser continues to fetch all the necessary resources and assembles the complete web page, displaying it to the user.
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is a secure version of the HTTP protocol that adds encryption to the communication between the client (browser) and the web server.
HTTPS works as follows:
HTTPS helps protect against man-in-the-middle attacks, eavesdropping, and other security threats.
The SOLID principles are a set of guidelines for writing clean, maintainable, and extensible object-oriented code:
Adhering to the SOLID principles helps create modular, flexible, and maintainable code that is easier to understand, test, and extend over time.
Some common serialization protocols used in .NET include:
The choice of serialization protocol depends on factors such as the data’s size and complexity and the system’s compatibility needs.
A pure function is a function that:
The advantages of using pure functions include:
Pure functions promote modularity, testability, and functional programming principles, leading to more maintainable and robust code.
60. What is dependency injection, and why is it useful?
Dependency Injection (DI) is a design pattern that allows you to decouple the creation and management of object dependencies from the objects that depend on them. Instead of directly creating dependencies, objects receive their dependencies from an external source. For example, through the constructor, method parameters, or properties.
DI is useful because it:
By using DI, you can create more maintainable, extensible, and testable applications, as the dependencies are managed externally.
Cohesion and coupling are two fundamental software design principles:
Cohesion refers to the degree to which the elements inside a module (e.g., a class or a function) belong together. High cohesion means that the elements within a module are strongly related and work together to achieve a specific purpose. Low cohesion indicates that the elements within a module are loosely related or unrelated, making the module harder to understand and maintain.
Coupling refers to the degree of interdependence between modules. Low coupling means that modules have minimal dependencies on each other, making the system more flexible and easier to modify. High coupling indicates that modules have strong dependencies, which can make the system more rigid and harder to change.
IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS are different service models in cloud computing:
IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Provides access to virtualized computing resources, such as virtual machines, storage, and networking. The cloud provider manages the underlying infrastructure, while the user controls the operating system, applications, and data.
PaaS (Platform as a Service): Provides a platform for developing, testing, and deploying applications, including the operating system, middleware, and runtime environment. The cloud provider manages the underlying infrastructure and platform while the user focuses on deploying and managing their applications.
SaaS (Software as a Service): Provides access to software applications hosted and managed by the cloud provider. Users access the software through a web browser or API; the cloud provider is responsible for the infrastructure, platform, and application management.
The main differences lie in the level of control and responsibility the user has over the various components of the system. IaaS offers the most control, PaaS offers a balance of control and abstraction, and SaaS offers the least control but the highest level of abstraction.
Some common debugging techniques include:
The choice of debugging technique depends on the nature of the problem, the complexity of the application, and the available tooling.
Some design patterns include:
These patterns help promote modularity, flexibility, and reusability in software design, making the code more maintainable over time.
The Singleton pattern ensures that a class has only one instance and provides a global point of access to it. The essence of the Singleton pattern is to have a private constructor and a static method that returns the single instance of the class.
The Singleton pattern is sometimes considered an anti-pattern because it can introduce a global state, making the code harder to test.
Alternatives to the Singleton pattern include using Dependency Injection to manage the lifetime of objects or using static classes (in C#) to provide global access to functionality without needing a Singleton instance.
The purpose of the Strategy pattern is to define a family of algorithms, encapsulate each one, and make them interchangeable. This way, the algorithm can be used by a class to be selected at runtime rather than being hard-coded.
The key benefits of the Strategy pattern are:
The Strategy pattern is useful in scenarios where you need to support multiple algorithms or behaviors.
The key differences between distributed systems and monolithic ones are:
Some design patterns used in distributed systems include:
The principles of a Message Bus are:
Duplicates can occur in queues for various reasons, such as network failures, process restarts, or message redelivery. To handle this, consumers should be designed to be idempotent, meaning they can safely process the same message multiple times.
Asynchronous methods in .NET allow a calling thread to initiate an operation and continue executing other tasks without waiting for the operation to complete. This is achieved through the use of the async and await keywords.
When an async method is called, it returns a Task or Task<T> object, representing the pending operation. The calling thread can then await the completion of the task, at which point the method will resume execution with the result of the asynchronous operation.
The key difference between asynchronicity and parallelism is:
Asynchronicity allows a single thread to perform other work while waiting for a long-running operation to complete without blocking the main thread.
Parallelism involves concurrently executing multiple threads, each working on a different task. Parallelism is useful for CPU-bound tasks that can be divided into smaller, independent subtasks. However, it requires more complex synchronization and resource management compared to asynchronicity.
In summary, asynchronicity enables a single thread to be more productive by allowing it to switch between multiple tasks. In contrast, parallelism utilizes multiple threads to work on tasks concurrently. Both approaches can be used to improve the performance and scalability of applications, but they address different types of problems.
In C#, certain exceptions cannot be caught in a catch block. These exceptions are known as unhandled exceptions, and they typically occur due to critical errors or resource constraints. Some examples of exceptions that cannot be caught include:
These exceptions are considered as unhandled exceptions, and they usually result in the termination of the application or the AppDomain.
The main difference between a .NET Standard Class Library and a .NET Core Class Library lies in their target frameworks and compatibility:
.NET Standard Class Library: A .NET Standard Class Library is a project type that targets the .NET Standard, a formal specification of APIs intended to be available on all .NET implementations. The .NET Standard enables code sharing across different .NET platforms, including .NET Core, .NET Framework, Xamarin, and others. However, it doesn’t provide any implementation details or runtime components. Instead, it defines a set of APIs the underlying platform must implement.
.NET Core Class Library: A .NET Core Class Library is a project type specifically targeting the .NET Core runtime. It is designed to run on the .NET Core runtime, a cross-platform implementation of .NET. Unlike the .NET Standard Class Library, a .NET Core Class Library can take advantage of platform-specific features and APIs provided by .NET Core.
In general, if you need to create a library that needs to be shared across multiple .NET platforms (e.g., .NET Framework, .NET Core, Xamarin), you would choose a .NET Standard Class Library. However, if you are building a library that will only be used within a .NET Core application, you might prefer a .NET Core Class Library, as it can take advantage of .NET Core-specific features and optimizations.
In LINQ (Language Integrated Query), there are two types of execution modes: deferred execution and immediate execution. The difference lies in when the query is actually evaluated and executed.
Deferred Execution:
In deferred execution mode, the LINQ query is not executed until the result is actually enumerated or accessed. The query is constructed and stored as an expression tree, and the actual evaluation is deferred until the last possible moment. Deferred execution is the default behavior for most LINQ queries.
Immediate Execution:
In immediate execution mode, the LINQ query is executed immediately, and the results are stored in a data structure (e.g., a list or array). This mode is typically used when you need to work with the query results multiple times or when you need to perform operations that cannot be expressed as a query expression.
In ASP.NET Core applications, the ConfigureServices method in the Startup class is used to configure and register various services that the application will use. It is part of the application’s startup process and is called by the runtime during the application’s initialization.
The main purpose of the ConfigureServices method is to set up and configure the services that the application will use, such as:
By registering and configuring services using the ConfigureServices method, the application can take advantage of the built-in Dependency Injection system.
services.AddTransient:
When a service is registered as transient using services.AddTransient, a new service instance is created every time it is requested from the DI container. It means that a new instance of that service will be created each time a transient service is injected into another class or component.
Transient services are suitable for stateless services or services that do not maintain any state across multiple requests.
services.AddScoped:
When a service is registered as scoped using services.AddScoped, a single instance of the service is created and shared within the same scope. In ASP.NET Core, the scope is typically tied to the current HTTP request. This means that within the same HTTP request, the same instance of the scoped service will be used for all instances that require that service.However, for a new HTTP request, a new instance of the scoped service will be created and used for that request’s scope.
Scoped services are suitable for services that maintain a state related to the current request or operation, such as services that interact with the HTTP context or databases.
The main difference between transient and scoped services lies in the lifetime and sharing of instances:
Transient: A new instance is created every time the service is requested.
Scoped: A single instance is created and shared within the same scope (e.g., HTTP request).
In general, you should use transient services for stateless services or services that do not maintain any state across multiple requests. Scoped services should be used for services that need to maintain state related to the current request or operation.
Kestrel is a cross-platform web server for ASP.NET Core applications. It is an open-source web server that was developed by Microsoft as part of the .NET Core project. Kestrel is designed to be lightweight, high-performance, and cross-platform, making it suitable for various deployment scenarios.
Here are some key features and characteristics of Kestrel:
Kestrel is designed to be a lean and efficient web server for ASP.NET Core applications, providing high performance and cross-platform support. However, it is typically used in conjunction with a reverse proxy server in production environments to ensure secure and scalable deployments.
The ASP.NET MVC request pipeline is a series of steps that occur when an ASP.NET MVC application processes an incoming HTTP request. The request pipeline is responsible for handling the request, routing it to the appropriate controller and action method, and executing the action method. Here’s a breakdown of the main steps in the ASP.NET MVC request pipeline:
In ASP.NET Web API, you can enable caching of HTTP responses by setting the appropriate response headers. The key headers for caching are:
– CacheControl: This header specifies caching policies like public/private caching, max-age (duration for which the response can be cached), and other caching directives.
– Expires: This header specifies the date and time after which the cached response should be considered stale.
Using message handlers, you can set these headers in the controller action methods or globally for all Web API controllers.
The CacheControl header allows you to control if the response can be cached publicly or privately and specify the max-age for caching. The Expires header sets an absolute expiration time for the cached response.
By configuring these headers appropriately, you can leverage client-side and intermediate proxy/gateway caching to improve the performance of your Web API.
The heap and the stack are two different memory regions in the computer’s memory that are used to store data during the execution of a program.
The Stack
The Heap
The stack is used for static memory allocation and automatic memory management. In contrast, the heap is used for dynamic memory allocation and requires manual or automatic memory management (e.g., garbage collection). The stack is faster and has a limited size, while the heap is slower but can grow dynamically.
The Garbage Collector (GC) is a key component of the .NET runtime. GC automatically manages the allocation and deallocation of memory for managed objects on the heap. Garbage Collector works by periodically scanning the managed heap and identifying objects that are no longer reachable, and reclaiming the memory occupied by those objects.
Here’s a general overview of how the Garbage Collector works:
The GC employs various techniques and algorithms to optimize its performance. These techniques include generational garbage collection, which divides the heap into generations based on object lifetime, and background garbage collection, which allows the GC to run concurrently with the application’s threads.
The using keyword in C# is needed to ensure proper disposal of unmanaged resources, even with .NET’s automatic memory management for managed resources. It’s related to the IDisposable interface and the Disposable pattern, which provides a way to encapsulate the acquisition and release of unmanaged resources. This complex pattern is necessary because while the .NET Garbage Collector handles managed objects, it doesn’t manage unmanaged resources, which must be explicitly released to prevent leaks.
Working with the Large Object Heap (LOH) in .NET has several peculiarities:
A generic class of a specific type is generated at compile-time through a process called code generation or specialization. When you use a generic class with a specific type argument, the compiler generates the IL (Intermediate Language) code for that specialized version of the class.
Reflection is a mechanism in .NET that allows code to inspect and interact with itself at runtime. This mechanism provides a way to dynamically discover and manipulate types, fields, methods, properties, and other metadata of loaded assemblies during program execution.
The LinkedList<T> is a doubly-linked list collection in .NET. It differs from other collections like List<T> and arrays in that it maintains a logical order of its elements and allows efficient insertion and removal operations at any point in the list. Unlike arrays, LinkedList<T> has no need to shift elements when adding or removing items, making it more efficient for frequent modifications.
An indexer is a special property in C# that allows instances of a class or struct to be accessed similarly to arrays or collections using an index or a set of indices. Indexers provide a convenient syntax for accessing and manipulating data within an object, making the object behave like a virtual array or dictionary.
An immutable object is an object whose state cannot be modified after creation. Once an immutable object is instantiated, its properties and fields remain constant throughout its lifetime.
Benefits of using immutable objects include:
Thread safety: Immutable objects are inherently thread-safe, as their state cannot be modified concurrently.
Simplicity: Immutable objects are simpler to reason about and debug, as their behavior is predictable and deterministic.
Caching: Immutable objects can be safely cached, as their state never changes.
To implement an immutable object in .NET, you can follow these steps:
Following these principles, you can create immutable objects that provide thread safety, simplicity, and caching benefits in your .NET applications.
You should use StringBuilder when performing multiple string operations, such as concatenations, insertions, or modifications.
string is immutable, meaning that any operation that modifies a string creates a new string object, which can lead to performance issues and increased memory usage.
StringBuilder is a mutable object that provides a more efficient way to build strings dynamically. It works by pre-allocating a buffer in memory and allowing you to modify the contents of that buffer directly without creating new string objects for each operation. This approach is more efficient, especially when dealing with large strings or performing many string operations.
Here’s a simplified overview of how StringBuilder works:
In general, you should use StringBuilder when performing multiple string operations, especially in loops or performance-critical code. For simple string operations or when you don’t need to modify the string, it’s fine to use the string type.
Tree balancing is a technique used in self-balancing binary search trees (such as AVL trees or Red-Black trees) to ensure that the tree remains balanced and maintains its efficiency for operations like insertion, deletion, and search. A balanced tree is one where the heights of the left and right subtrees of every node differ by at most one.
Tree balancing involves performing rotations (left or right) on nodes in the tree to maintain the balance after insertions or deletions. These rotations help redistribute the nodes in the tree, ensuring that the height of the tree remains logarithmic with respect to the number of nodes, which is crucial for efficient operations.
Balancing a tree helps maintain the time complexity of operations like search, insertion, and deletion at O(log n), where n is the number of nodes in the tree. Without balancing, a binary search tree can degenerate into a linked list in the worst case, leading to linear time complexity for these operations.
Key-value structures, also known as associative arrays or dictionaries, are data structures that store and organize data as key-value pairs. Each element is associated with a unique key used to access and retrieve the corresponding value in a key-value structure.
Key-value structures are widely used in various applications, such as caching systems, databases, and data processing pipelines. They provide an efficient way to store and retrieve data based on a key, which can be a primitive type (e.g., integer, string) or a custom object.
Examples of key-value structures in .NET include:
Dictionary<TKey, TValue>: A generic collection that stores key-value pairs, where the keys are unique.
Hashtable: A non-generic collection that stores key-value pairs, similar to Dictionary<TKey, TValue>.
SortedDictionary<TKey, TValue>: A sorted collection that stores key-value pairs in ascending order based on the keys.
SortedList<TKey, TValue>: A sorted collection that stores key-value pairs in a list-like structure.
Key-value structures provide efficient lookup, insertion, and deletion operations, with an average time complexity of O(1) for most operations when implemented correctly (e.g., using hash tables).
A hash function is a mathematical function that takes an input (e.g., a string, an object, or data collection) and produces a fixed-size output, typically an integer value, known as a hash code or hash value. Hash functions are designed to distribute their outputs in a uniform and pseudo-random manner across the entire range of possible hash values.
Hash tables are data structures that use hash functions to store and retrieve data efficiently. Hash tables are needed because they provide fast average-case time complexity for common operations like insertion, deletion, and lookup, which are typically O(1) on average.
Hash tables are widely used in various applications, such as caching systems, databases, compilers, and data processing pipelines, due to their efficiency in storing and retrieving data based on keys.
An ideal hash function should have the following properties:
Collisions in hash tables occur when different keys are mapped to the same index by the hash function. Common techniques to handle collisions include separate chaining, open addressing, and rehashing.
The time complexity of CRUD operations on Dictionary<K,V> in .NET is O(1) on average for retrieval, insertion, and removal, assuming a good hash function and proper load factor management.
Arrays are stored on the managed heap in .NET. Primitive type arrays are stored as a contiguous block of memory on the managed heap.
An array (T[]) has a fixed size that cannot be changed after creation, while a List<T> is a resizable collection that can grow or shrink dynamically.
IList<T> is a collection that provides indexed access and modification methods, while IEnumerable<T> is a more basic interface for iterating over a collection.
Enumerable for synchronous pull-based retrieval.
Observable for push-based asynchronous retrieval.
AsyncEnumerable for asynchronous pull-based retrieval.
IEnumerable represents an in-memory collection, while IQueryable represents a query that can be executed against a data source (e.g., a database).
Enum flags are special values that can be combined using bitwise operations to represent multiple states or options simultaneously.
Normal forms are rules or guidelines for designing relational database tables to minimize data redundancy and improve data integrity. The main normal forms are:
Higher normal forms aim to eliminate more data redundancy and dependencies, leading to a more normalized database design.
An index in a database is a data structure that stores a subset of data from a table to improve the speed of data retrieval operations. It works similarly to an index in a book, pointing to the location of specific data values within the table. Indexes are typically created on one or more columns of a table.
Indexes should be used when:
– Frequent queries involve searching, sorting, or retrieving data based on one or more columns.
– You need to enforce uniqueness constraints or foreign key relationships.
– You want to improve the performance of join operations between tables.
Faster data retrieval for queries involving indexed columns
Additional storage space is required for the index data structures
Improved query performance, especially for large tables
Due to index maintenance, increased overhead for data modification operations (inserts, updates, deletes)
Enforced uniqueness and integrity constraints
Potential for index fragmentation over time, leading to performance degradation
There are several types of indexes in databases:
These index types differ in structure, storage mechanisms, and optimizations for various queries and data access patterns.
ACID is an acronym that represents four essential properties of database transactions:
Atomicity: A transaction is an indivisible unit of work; either all of its operations are completed successfully or none are executed.
Consistency: A transaction must leave the database in a valid state, following all defined rules, constraints, and integrity constraints.
Isolation: Concurrent transactions must execute independently and not interfere with each other, even if they operate on the same data.
Durability: Once a transaction is committed, its effects must persist and remain permanent, even in the event of system failure or power outage.
ACID properties ensure database transactions’ reliability, integrity, and consistency, enabling applications to maintain data integrity and prevent corruption or inconsistent states.
The main transaction isolation levels in databases are:
A query execution plan in Microsoft SQL Server is a strategy that the database engine generates to execute a given SQL query. It represents the sequence of operations and algorithms the query optimizer chooses to retrieve the requested data efficiently.
The query execution plan provides insights into the following:
By analyzing the query execution plan, database administrators and developers can:
When a query is taking a long time to execute, there are several methods you can use to diagnose and solve the issue:
Often, a combination of these methods, along with profiling and iterative testing, leads to optimal query performance.
ORMs like Entity Framework and Entity Framework Core use a component called LINQ to Entities (LINQ to EF) to translate C# LINQ queries into database query language (SQL). LINQ to Entities acts as a query provider, taking the LINQ query expression and translating it into an expression tree. This expression tree is then processed by the Entity Framework query pipeline, which generates the corresponding SQL query to be executed against the database. The translation process involves analyzing the expression tree, applying optimization rules, and mapping the LINQ constructs to their SQL equivalents.
The Task.ConfigureAwait method controls the context-capturing behavior of await expressions in asynchronous methods. It is particularly important when writing code interacting with user interfaces, such as Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF) or Windows Forms applications.
When an asynchronous method is awaited without ConfigureAwait, the continuation (code after the await) will capture and resume on the same context (e.g., UI thread) that triggered the asynchronous operation. It can lead to performance issues and potential deadlocks if the awaited task is not related to the UI thread’s work.
By calling ConfigureAwait(false), you instruct the asynchronous method to resume its continuation on a different context (e.g., a thread pool thread) rather than capturing the original context. It helps to prevent unnecessary context switches and improves performance, especially in scenarios where the awaited task does not require the UI thread’s context.
In summary, using Task.ConfigureAwait(false) is recommended in non-UI asynchronous methods to avoid unnecessarily capturing the UI thread’s context, which can lead to performance issues and deadlocks.
This scenario can be optimized using asynchronous programming in .NET. Instead of blocking threads waiting for database queries, use async/await with asynchronous database operations, allowing threads to be released back to the thread pool while waiting. Also, consider increasing the maximum thread pool size if expecting high concurrency.
The ThreadPool provides an efficient way to manage and reuse threads for asynchronous/parallel tasks, avoiding the overhead of manual thread creation/termination. When a task is requested, the ThreadPool allocates an available thread from its queue; if none is available and under the max limit, it creates a new thread. After executing the task, the thread is returned to the queue for reuse until an idle timeout, then terminated.
For senior .NET developer interviews, initial rounds screen in-depth .NET frameworks knowledge and design patterns. Technical rounds involve architecting complex systems, optimizing performance, and answering senior .NET developer interview questions. Candidates often solve distributed system design and database scalability problems.
Besides OOP, Aspect-Oriented Programming (AOP) is used to cross-cut concerns.
Functional Programming (FP) concepts like LINQ and lambda expressions.
Event-Driven Programming for loosely coupled systems.
Reactive Programming with Reactive Extensions (Rx).
Domain-Driven Design (DDD) for modeling complex domains.
Complex problems include implementing a distributed caching system (used Redis, data partitioning, failover), optimizing a data-intensive ETL process (parallelization, performance tuning), and developing a real-time messaging system (used message queues, load balancing, failover). Solutions involved researching technologies, prototyping, performance testing, and iterative design.
Loosely-coupled code has minimal dependencies between components, enabling independent development and evolution. It’s better than tightly-coupled code, which is harder to maintain and change. Achieve loose coupling through abstractions (interfaces), dependency injection, event-driven communication, and modular design.
Static classes can increase code coupling by introducing global states and dependencies across the codebase. Static classes are best used judiciously for utility classes or when truly required.
Code performance can be measured using profiling tools, benchmarking frameworks, and performance counters. The act of measuring can affect performance due to instrumentation overhead.
Multi-stage builds in Docker are a feature that allows you to build your Docker image in multiple stages. It is useful for reducing the final image size by only including the necessary files and dependencies. Each stage can use a different base image, and you can copy artifacts from one stage to the next.
You can use profiling tools like memory and CPU profilers to identify code that consumes a lot of memory or runs slowly. Potential bottlenecks could be CPU-bound tasks, I/O-bound tasks, or memory-intensive operations. You can optimize data structures, limit allocations, and use techniques like memory pooling to reduce memory usage. To reduce memory traffic, you can improve cache utilization, minimize data copying, and optimize memory access patterns.
You can use design patterns like the Decorator or Aspect-Oriented Programming (AOP) approach to implement cross-cutting concerns like logging, validation, or transactions.
The REST Maturity Model is a framework for evaluating the level of “RESTfulness” in an API. It has four levels: Level 0 (the most basic), Level 1 (resource-oriented), Level 2 (HTTP verbs), and Level 3 (hypermedia controls).
CPU-bound tasks, such as mathematical computations, primarily use the CPU. while
I/O-bound tasks involve waiting for external resources, such as reading from a database or making network requests.
Marshaling is the process of converting an object’s internal representation into a format that can be transmitted, stored, or read from a stream.
Async/await in programming languages like C# and JavaScript allows developers to write asynchronous code that appears synchronous. The await keyword pauses the execution of the current method until the asynchronous operation is complete, allowing the thread to be used for other tasks in the meantime. Async void methods are not recommended because they can be difficult to handle errors and exceptions.
The lock statement in C# acquires a mutual exclusion lock on a given object, ensuring that only one thread can execute the code within the lock block at a time. Structs can be used inside a lock expression, but it’s generally not recommended as structs are value types and can lead to unexpected behavior.
Expression Trees represent code in a tree-like data structure, where each node represents a particular code construct, such as a method call, a variable, or an operator. They are used in LINQ and other advanced .NET features to analyze and manipulate code at runtime.
The .NET Garbage Collector (GC) automatically reclaims memory occupied by objects no longer in use. GC uses a generational approach, with three generations (0, 1, and 2), to optimize performance. Newer objects are placed in generation 0, and if they survive multiple collections, they are promoted to higher generations. This approach collects the most frequently used, short-lived objects more often.
You can use tools like Application Insights or Elastic APM to set up tracing for Web API services. These provide out-of-the-box integration with ASP.NET Core and allow you to collect and analyze various telemetry data.
For secret storage in .NET Core applications, you can use solutions like Azure Key Vault, AWS Secrets Manager, or HashiCorp Vault. These provide a secure way to store and manage sensitive information in development and production environments, such as connection strings and API keys.
To organize the CI/CD process for .NET Core services, you can use tools like Azure DevOps, GitHub Actions, or Jenkins. These allow you to set up automated build, test, and deployment pipelines, ensuring consistent and reliable deployments to your cloud infrastructure.
In ASP.NET Core, you can enable CORS (Cross-Origin Resource Sharing) by configuring the CorsOptions in the Startup.cs file. It allows you to specify which origins, headers, and HTTP methods are allowed to access your API.
Generics in .NET are implemented using a technique called “type erasure.” During compilation, the generic type parameters are replaced with their constrained types, and the resulting code is then compiled as if the generic types were not present.
To create your immutable type, you can make the class sealed and ensure that all its properties are read-only. You can also make the class’s constructor private and provide a static factory method to create instances of the class.
IEnumerable<T> is a simple interface that defines a single method, GetEnumerator(), which returns an IEnumerator<T>. This interface allows you to iterate over a collection of items without exposing the underlying data structure.
I have implemented several custom data structures for the .NET platform, including a custom Linked List and a Priority Queue. These implementations often differ from the standard .NET collections regarding performance characteristics, memory usage, or specialized functionality.
The main difference between interfaces and abstract classes is that interfaces can only define method signatures, properties, events, and indexers. At the same time, abstract classes can include method implementations, fields, and constructors. Interfaces are generally used to define contracts or APIs, while abstract classes are used to provide a base implementation for related types.
Structs in .NET do not have a default constructor because they are value types, and value types are initialized with their default values (e.g., 0 for numeric types, false for bool, null for reference types) when created. Providing a default constructor for a struct would be redundant and could lead to unexpected behavior.
Databases store data in a structured way, typically in tables with rows and columns. The specific storage mechanisms vary between different database management systems (DBMS). However, they generally use a combination of in-memory caching, disk-based storage, and indexing to optimize performance.
The main types of databases include Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS), such as SQL Server, PostgreSQL, and MySQL, as well as NoSQL databases like MongoDB, Cassandra, and Redis.
The choice of database depends on factors like the data model, scalability requirements, performance needs, and the type of queries the application will perform. RDBMS are well-suited for applications with structured data and complex relationships. In contrast, NoSQL databases excel at handling unstructured data and high-volume, high-velocity workloads.
Denormalization is the process of intentionally duplicating data in a database to improve query performance.
Transaction isolation levels determine how much interference can occur between concurrent transactions. The most common levels are READ UNCOMMITTED, READ COMMITTED, REPEATABLE READ, and SERIALIZABLE, each with different trade-offs between consistency and concurrency.
ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) principles are implemented in RDBMS through features like transaction management, locking mechanisms, and logging/recovery processes.
Database queries can be optimized by analyzing execution plans, adding appropriate indexes, and denormalizing data structures.
Potential issues with parallel database queries include deadlocks, race conditions, and increased contention for shared resources. These issues can lead to performance degradation or data consistency issues.
A distributed lock mechanism can be implemented using a database that supports distributed transactions, such as SQL Server with Distributed Transaction Coordinator (DTC) or PostgreSQL with pg_dist_lock. The implementation would involve creating a table to store lock information and using transactions to acquire, release, and manage the locks.
Microservices solve the complexity problem in large, monolithic applications by breaking them down into smaller, independent services that can be developed, deployed, and scaled separately.
Microservices can communicate using various inter-service communication patterns, such as synchronous HTTP/REST, asynchronous messaging (e.g., queues, event buses), or a hybrid approach.
A circuit breaker is a design pattern that helps manage failures in distributed systems by preventing cascading failures and providing fallback options when a downstream service is unavailable.
To debug a microservices-based system, you can use distributed tracing tools like Jaeger or Zipkin, which allow you to trace the full request processing path across multiple services.
Message brokers like RabbitMQ, Apache Kafka, or Azure Service Bus facilitate asynchronous communication between microservices. At-least-once semantics ensure that a message is delivered at least once, while at-most-once semantics guarantee that a message is delivered at most once. Exactly-once semantics, which ensures a message is delivered exactly once, can be achieved using techniques like idempotency.
Depending on the chosen message delivery semantics, the broker client code should appropriately handle retries, timeouts, and error handling.
I’m familiar with various queue-related tools, such as RabbitMQ, Apache Kafka, and Azure Service Bus. The choice would depend on factors like the application’s specific requirements, the team’s familiarity with the technology, and the overall ecosystem.
Azure Service Fabric provides several types of services, including Stateless Services, Stateful Services, and Actor-based services. Stateless services are simple, scalable services without any persistent state, while Stateful services maintain their state. Actor-based services are a programming model that simplifies the development of highly scalable and reliable distributed applications.
Azure Table Storage is a NoSQL key-value store with high availability, durability, and scalability. Its key characteristics include eventual consistency, a limited query capability compared to SQL databases, and a maximum table size of 500 TB. It is well-suited for storing large amounts of semi-structured data, such as user profiles, device information, and log data.
159. How do you deal with the cold start problem in Azure Functions?
The cold start problem in Azure Functions refers to the delay in function execution when the runtime needs to spin up a new instance to handle a request. To mitigate this, you can use strategies like keeping the function app warm, using a consumption plan with a pre-warmed instance, or leveraging a dedicated App Service plan.
160. What’s the difference between queues and topics in Azure Service Bus?
In Azure Service Bus, queues deliver simple first-in, first-out (FIFO) message. At the same time, topics enable a publish-subscribe model where multiple subscriber rules can be defined to filter messages. Queues are useful for one-to-one communication, while topics are better suited for one-to-many scenarios.
Acing a .NET interview requires a collaborative effort. Candidates need to demonstrate their technical expertise, problem-solving skills, and passion for development. However, for hiring managers, a successful interview goes beyond a list of .NET interview questions. Evaluate communication skills and cultural fit, ensuring the candidate thrives in a team. Give coding challenges using .NET in interviews. Observe their approaches and logic.
Thankfully, valuable solutions are available to simplify this process. If you want to skip the hassle of screening and interviewing, contact us. Here at DOIT Software, we have a smooth process for hiring top .NET developers. We can provide you with the first CVs in a few days.
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Request CVsCracking a .NET interview boils down to three key steps. First, brush up on the basics – C#, how memory is managed (garbage collection), and the .NET libraries you might use. Second, practice answering common .NET interview questions you can find in the list above. Finally, sharpen your problem-solving skills – interviewers love to see how you think through coding challenges.
Acing a senior .NET interview hinges on three things: 1) Level up your skills with advanced topics like ASP.NET Core MVC and design patterns. 2) Showcase your experience with real-world projects, highlighting challenges and impact. 3) Think leader – be ready to discuss code reviews, knowledge sharing, and building a strong team.
.NET Framework is Microsoft’s software framework that provides the runtime environment and core class libraries for building applications using C#. C# code compiles to an intermediate bytecode executed by the .NET runtime (CLR). The .NET Framework handles memory management, security, and other system services for C# apps. It offers extensive class libraries for desktop, web, and mobile development. .NET allows C# code to use libraries written in other .NET languages.
